Vardaan Learning Institute

Chapter 1: The First War of Independence (1857)

PART A: The First War of Independence, 1857

Causes of the Revolt of 1857

Political Causes:

Doctrine of Lapse (Lord Dalhousie, 1848): If a native ruler died without a natural male heir, his state was annexed by the British. States annexed: Satara (1848), Jaipur and Sambhalpur (1849), Baghat (1850), Udaipur (1852), Jhansi (1853), Nagpur (1854), Awadh (1856). This created fear and insecurity among Indian princes.
Annexation of Awadh (1856): Lord Dalhousie annexed Awadh on the false charge of "misgovernance." This angered not only the Nawab of Awadh but also the vast number of sepoys of the Bengal Army who came from Awadh.
Insult to Indian rulers: Indian princes and their advisors were treated rudely by British officers. The dignity of the Mughals was publicly humiliated.
Displacement of the Mughal Emperor: The British threatened to end the Mughal title after the death of Bahadur Shah Zafar.

Economic Causes:

Destruction of Indian industries: British machine-made goods flooded India, destroying traditional handloom, handicraft, and cottage industries. Weavers, artisans, and craftsmen were ruined and left without livelihoods.
Heavy land revenue: The Permanent Settlement (Bengal), Ryotwari, and Mahalwari systems imposed heavy taxes. Peasants who could not pay lost their land to moneylenders.
Drain of Wealth: India's resources and revenues were steadily transferred to Britain with nothing in return.
Exclusion from high posts: Indians were excluded from all senior government and military positions — all high positions were reserved for Europeans.

Socio-Religious Causes:

Fear of conversion: Christian missionaries were actively proselytizing in India, and many Indians feared the British intended to forcibly convert them to Christianity.
Social reform laws: The abolition of Sati (1829) and the Hindu Widows' Remarriage Act (1856) were seen by conservatives as interference in Hindu religious customs.
Spread of Western education: The introduction of English education and Western values threatened traditional Indian society.
Racial arrogance: British officers treated Indians with contempt and racial superiority, humiliating Indian soldiers and civilians.

Immediate Cause The Enfield Rifle Cartridge Controversy (Military Cause):
The new Enfield P-53 rifle required soldiers to bite off the greased tip of the cartridge before loading. Rumours spread that the cartridges were greased with cow fat (offensive to Hindus) and pig fat (offensive to Muslims). Both Hindu and Muslim soldiers refused to use the cartridges. Mangal Pandey, a sepoy of the 34th Bengal Infantry at Barrackpore, attacked his British officers on 29 March 1857. He was arrested, court-martialled, and executed on 8 April 1857.

Key Events of the Revolt

10 May 1857: Sepoys at Meerut openly revolted, broke open the jail, and marched to Delhi. They proclaimed the last Mughal Emperor Bahadur Shah Zafar as their leader.
Kanpur: Nana Sahib (adopted son of the last Peshwa) led the revolt. After initial success, British forces recaptured Kanpur.
Jhansi: Rani Lakshmibai refused to accept the Doctrine of Lapse and fought heroically. She was killed in battle at Gwalior in June 1858. Nicknamed "the Jhansi ki Rani."
Lucknow: Begum Hazrat Mahal (wife of the exiled Nawab of Awadh) led the revolt with great courage.
Bihar: Kunwar Singh, an 80-year-old zamindar, led the revolt in Arrah/Bihar.
By September 1857, the British recaptured Delhi. Bahadur Shah Zafar was captured and exiled to Rangoon (Myanmar).
By June 1858, the revolt was completely suppressed.

Consequences and Changes After 1857

Changes in Administration (Government of India Act, 1858):

The East India Company's rule ended. India was brought under the direct governance of the British Crown.
A Secretary of State for India (a member of the British Cabinet) was appointed, assisted by a 15-member Council of India.
The Governor-General was given the new title of Viceroy of India (representative of the Crown). Lord Canning became the first Viceroy.

Important Queen Victoria's Proclamation (1 November 1858):
Queen Victoria issued a royal proclamation announcing the transfer of power to the Crown. Key promises made:

No interference in the religious beliefs and customs of Indians.
Equal and impartial treatment for all subjects of the Crown, regardless of race or creed — Indians could hold government posts.
The policy of Doctrine of Lapse was abandoned — princes could adopt heirs; their territories and sovereignty were guaranteed.
Amnesty for rebels who had not taken part in the murder of British subjects.
Queen Victoria would be the sovereign of India; Indians were declared her loyal subjects.

Note: While the proclamation made noble promises, most were not actually fulfilled in practice.

Relation with Princely States (after 1857):

The Doctrine of Lapse was abandoned.
Princes were allowed to adopt heirs to succeed them.
Their territories and sovereignty were guaranteed by the British Crown.
Indian princes became loyal allies of the Crown — they were awarded medals, titles, and ceremonial honours in exchange for loyalty.

Changes in the Army (after 1857):

The proportion of European soldiers in India was significantly increased relative to Indian troops.
The ratio was fixed: in Bengal — 1 European to 2 Indians; in Bombay and Madras — 1 European to 3 Indians.
The artillery (cannon) was placed exclusively in the hands of European soldiers — Indians were not allowed to handle heavy weapons.
Indians were recruited based on the theory of "martial races" — preference given to Gurkhas, Sikhs, and Pathans (considered loyal) over Bengalis (considered disloyal).
The Bengal Army (which had mutinied) was reorganized and reduced in size.